• Ambient temperature – the hotter the weather, the more water the calf requires. Water requirements increase exponentially as the temperature rises; as temperatures approach 32ºC, water requirement increases dramatically. Calves cannot sweat but still need to stay cool. Water is required to eliminate heat of metabolism and digestion. If sufficient water is not available for cooling, feed intake is depressed.
• Scours - A calf that is about to get scours or some other health issue will drink more water. Calves that consume water when they are healthy tend to have fewer days scouring and when they do scour the outbreak is less severe.
• Water Temperature – Studies have shown that feedlot beef cattle consume less cool water (10ºC), but gain more weight than when warm water (32ºC) is provided. Cattle perform best when cool water (10ºC) is fed because it helps the animal get rid of excess heat.
  In cold conditions, warm water will reduce ‘cold load’ on the calf and increase time to freezing.
• Starter intake – water intake is very closely correlated with starter intake. (see column 1)
• Amount liquid milk replacer – as milk intake increases, water intake decreases.
• Incorrect feeding: Calves may consume more water because they are still hungry (i.e.) not getting enough energy from the milk. E.g. If you feed 4L of 20/20 replacer during cold winter temperatures, it is NOT enough calories for the calf to maintain and grow. (see winter feeding article).

Water Quality

Producers should be aware of their water quality and ensure that water sources used for the calf are fresh, clean and free of contaminants.

At least, yearly water analysis is suggested for all water systems and particular attention after snow has melted, heavy rainfall and excessive run-off situations. Particular attention should be paid to well water sources.

Water can become contaminated with chemicals, microbial organisms, high levels of minerals etc that could be detrimental to young animals, affecting their health and/or growth. (see table below).

Warm milk replacer can provide an ideal medium for rapid bacterial growth. Low bacterial contamination of the water source could provide sufficient bacterial load to cause disease in young animals. E.g. in a US study, 73% of surface waters had cryptosporidial oocysts.

How to meet calf needs

Provide adequate fresh clean cool (10oC) water daily. Ensure adequate water supply under ice conditions.
Clean all buckets and containers daily.
Check automatic systems regularly to ensure clean and adequate flow. Contaminated nozzles and pipelines may encourage bacteria and fungi to grow.

Adequate clean, fresh water = improved rate of gain, feed conversion, health and profit.

Information from CCREM 1987, Australian Water Quality Criteria 1974, NAS 1974, CAST 1974, BCMOELP 1994, NRC 1974, NRC 1998, NRC 2001, Manitoba Agriculture 1992, EPA 1996, CPAQ 1999, Agriculture and Agri-food Canada (2000).

Water quality standard listings of concentrations (as above) would be useful expressed as ‘total maximum daily load’. These present a dose risk more accurately and would enable interpreters to consider a specific element acquired from all sources, e.g. feed and water.

For example: When forages, especially grasses, are stressed by drought, they can accumulate nitrates. A high level of nitrogen fertilization also is a factor in many cases of nitrate poisoning.

Serve the milk solution at a temperature of 40°C and feed according to feed schedule below: