Calf
Milk replacer storage
Grober® milk replacers are a blend of dry milk ingredients, fat filled whey powder and freeze dried liquid fat blend. The combination of fat sources allows Grober to offer a unique fatty acid profile along with competitive pricing. Moisture content is typically very low (<5%) to inhibit mold and bacterial growth. However without storage considerations, temperature fluctuations common to Canadian weather may affect product integrity. Below is a summary of recommendations to ensure powder remains easy to prepare and feed to young animals. These procedures apply to warehouse storage, transportation and farm storage.
Summer – warmer temperatures/humidity (³25°C)
- High temperatures combined with high humidity can introduce moisture forming clumps. The length of time product is stored will increase the likelihood of these clumps.
- Humidity is increased with a barn full of animals – milk replacer should ideally be stored in a dry and separate area
- Clumps and moisture can increase risk of spoilage – fat oxidation may impact smell and taste and potentially affect the nutritive value of the product
Fall, winter, spring – cooler temperatures (≤0°C)
- Milk replacer powder that is subject to rapid temperature changes (cold to warm and vice versa) will cause condensation that may form clumps making it difficult to:
- Break up for measuring
- Require more effort (hand mixing) to dissolve the powder
- With improper mixing, can lead to a decrease in digestibility
Optimal Storage of milk replacer
- Observe the principles of FIFO (first in-first out)
- Do not store product in a kitchen where steam is produced and contained
- Do not store the product in barns filled with animals generating heat and moisture
- Do not store product near a water source (in event of leak)
- Consider pests (mouse, rats, house pets, birds, etc)
- Minimize the number of skids piled high – Max. 2 skids high to reduce compaction effects.
- Close/seal bag when not in use; product can be frozen (and re-warmed slowly) if saving for following season in the case of seasonal breeding.
- Optimal storage temperature: from 5 to 20°C, relative humidity ≤ 60%
Comment
When product is stored for more than 1 year, there is a risk of fat oxidation and loss of vitamin activity (most notably the fat soluble vitamins A, D, and E). To avoid oxidation, product should be kept in dry conditions and reduced light exposure.
Winter feeding – don’t just add fat!
The cold weather that comes with Canadian winters means that calf feeding programs need to be adjusted.
Maintenance requirements must be met for growth and development however ensuring strong growth has been linked to improved performance (earlier breeding and increased milk yield). In order to continue with setting a strong trend for growth, extra milk replacer needs to be fed during the winter. Wind, chill and wetness will demand more energy from the calf for maintenance.
Providing extra calories from protein, fat and lactose will ensure these energy needs are met. One school of thought is to provide extra energy through extra fat. Fat, however, must be digested and providing more means that the calf has to expend energy to digest a diet they may not be accustomed to. One of the studies conducted this year at the Grober Young Animal Development Center was to assess how calves performed when fed a regular (R) milk replacer (26/18) versus one with extra calories from fat (HF) (26/30). There was no difference between intakes of the milk replacer such that calves consuming the 26/18 drank on average 7.53 L/day and calves consuming the 26/30 drank on average 7.42 L/day. Grain intake was less throughout the trial for calves on the high fat milk replacer. Grain intake will play a large role in developing the rumen and ensuring the transition at weaning is less stressful.
Figure 1 Body weight differences in calves fed a regular milk replacer versus a high fat milk replacer.
Moreover, feed: gain (the measure of how much feed it takes to gain 1 kg of bodyweight) was less in calves consuming regular milk replacer (1.60 R; 1.71 HF). That means less R milk replacer was needed to gain the same amount of weight as the HF milk replacer. There was no difference in health events between the two groups. Adjusting a calf’s feeding program to compensate for changes in weather should be done gradually and carefully. Providing extra calories from one nutrient alone forces the calf to digest a new type of diet which can be challenging and upsetting to their digestive tract. It is also important to note that increasing a calf’s access to grain for extra calories will not be as efficient as milk replacer during this stage of growth where the digestibility of milk replacer is 97% or greater.
Providing extra calories through a balanced diet that they are already accustomed to drinking, remembering that calories come from protein and lactose as well, enables the calf to derive more energy from their feedstuffs without the upsetting change in feed.
Figure 2 Grain intake for calves on regular milk replacer versus the high fat milk replacer.
Steps to a successful winter feeding program:
- Extra calories – provide extra calories through a balanced feed, one they are already accustomed.
- Extra feeding – provide the extra calories in another meal to ensure smooth digestion.
- Don’t just add grain – milk is much more digestible to a young calf then grain, provide extra calories through milk.
Kathleen Shore
Nutrition and QA Manager
Optimizing your calf feeding program = Sound Economics
The terms accelerated and enhanced have been used over the past 15 years to describe an increased plane of nutrition in calves. However, calves require that increased nutrition in order to optimize growth. Moreover, production objectives such as decreasing age at first breeding, improving health status, and ultimately building a more efficient and productive dairy cow is now an expected outcome of a calf nutrition program.
The basis of the calf growth model
The calf’s digestive system is immature and requires milk ingredients as the primary source of nutrition. The first two months of a calf’s life are the greatest opportunity to optimize early and future growth. Overwhelming evidence now proves there is a positive relationship between optimal (accelerated) feeding programs and first lactation milk output (2,3,5). VanAmburgh’s research team (Cornell University) were able to determine that for every 1lb of average daily gain prior to weaning, heifers produced approximately 1,000lbs more milk throughout first lactation (6). To put this in economic terms; every extra dollar spend/calf on Grober Milk Replacer will yield a $6.00 increase in milk revenue from that animal in the first lactation alone (ROI=600%). There are few investments that have this big of an impact on your bottom line.
While early nutrition is very important, over-conditioning (particularly between 3-15 months) can have detrimental effects on mammary gland development and thus future milk production. The balance of nutrients provided in the milk phase is critical (Figure 1). Providing excess calories primarily through fat can lead to fat deposition. Dietary protein enables skeletal and muscular development while enhancing other cellular functions including the immune system. Feeding for higher gains in the milk phase (< 3 months; ≥ 900 g/d) may prevent heifers from over-conditioning, provided the correct protein level is included in your milk replacer. Furthermore, gains > 840g/day (between 12 and 65 days of age) have yielded a higher proportion of cows finishing 1st lactation compared to calves gaining ≤ 741g/day (1).
Figure 1 Calf partitioning of fat and protein in the body
based on the level of crude protein in the milk replacer (4).
Grober Young Animal Development Centre Experience
The Grober Young Animal Development Centre in Woodstock, Ontario, examined the outcome of feeding 6 litres/day vs 9 L/d of a higher protein milk replacer (Grober Excel 26% protein, 18% fat). Milk replacer was mixed at a rate of 150g/L. Calves fed 9 litres/day had significantly greater gains from week 2 to week 6 (Figure 2, p>0.05).
These higher body weights were attained even though calves drinking 6 L/day consumed more calf starter. During the weaning phase (week 6-8) grain intakes in the higher milk group (9L/d) increased rapidly; calves fed 6 L/d continued to consume more grain. However, this increased grain intake did not result in greater body weight gains. Calves in the 9L/d group continued to outperform post weaning (Figure 2).
Figure 2 BW comparison between calves fed Grober Excel milk replacer at* 6L/day and 9L/day.
Actual Total Feed Cost to the Producer
When applying a tool developed by the University of Wisconsin, considerable cost benefit can be shown when feeding an optimal program.
http://www.uwex.edu/ces/dairymgt/tools/index.html
*Milk replacer costs for the conventional and optimal programs are based on Grober Excel and calf starter 22%, May 2010.
Table 1 The cost benefits per calf of an optimal feeding program, using typical figures.
| Feeding program | Conventional | Optimal |
| Birth weight (kg) | 43 | 43 |
| Weaning age (days) | 56 | 56 |
| Weaning weight (kg) | 68 | 96 |
| MR intake (kg/d) | 0.54 | 1.0 |
| Calf starter intake (kg/d) | 0.6 | 0.36 |
| Calving age (days) | 730 (24mth) | 697( 22.8mth) |
| *Cost benefit at WEANING $/calf | 58.11 |
Table 1 highlights that an optimal milk feeding schedule reduces calving age by 1.2 months. This requires fewer replacement heifers for the same herd turnover. According to Dr. Corbett, (Corbett, OABP/OABA conf. April 2010)(7), this means 5 less heifers to feed annually for a 100 cow dairy. Assuming a feed cost of $1800 per heifer, this translates into another $9000 in savings.
Optimal feeding Right From the Start makes for healthier, stronger animals, with improved long term productivity and improves your bottom line.
References
- Bach, A. 2010. Associations between several aspects of heifer development and dairy cow longevity. (abst ADSA Denver)
- Ballard, C. H. Wolford, T. Sato, K. Uchida, M. Suekawa, Y. Yabuuchi, and K. Kobayashi. 2005. The effect of feeding three milk replacer regimens preweaning on first lactation performance of Holstein cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 88:22(abst).
- Bar-Peled, U., B. Robinson, E. Maltz, H. Tagari, Y. Folman, I. Bruckental, H. Voet, H. Gacitua, and A.R. Lehrer. 1997. Increased weight gain and effects on production parameters of Holstein heifers that were allowed to suckle. J. Dairy Sci. 80:2523-2528.
- Bartlett, K. S. 2001. Interactions of protein and energy supply from milk replacers on growth and body composition of dairy calves. M.S. Thesis, University of Illinois, Urbana.
- Foldager, J. and C.C. Krohn. 1994. Heifer calves reared on very high or normal levels of whole milk from birth to 6-8 weeks of age and their subsequent milk production. Proc. Soc. Nutr. Physiol.,3.
- Van Amburgh, M. 2007. Early Life Management and Long-Term productivity of Dairy Calves. A review.
- Corbett. 2010. OABP/OABA conf. April 2010, Guelph, Ontario
The Importance of a calf’s first meal
Colostrum is the first milk produced after a cow gives birth; it is a nutrient dense, immunoglobulin rich milk designed for the newborn calf. Delivering that milk with care is the key to ensuring that a calf’s immune system (immature at birth) starts to develop. Making certain that this first immunological base is provided to young calves in a timely fashion will have a critical impact on the defense against health challenges common to young animals..
During the past 2 years more than 300 calves have resided at the Grober Young Animal Development Center, located in Woodstock, Ontario. This Center focuses on nutritional and management research for pre-ruminants, such as calves (for Gro Facts e-blast please insert pict of GYADC). Each calf entering the facility was tested for total protein (a simple blood test). Total protein is a strong indicator of the colostrum program. Higher values indicate a calf received enough colostrum within a timely fashion to start building a strong immune system. Factors that will affect colostrum absorption are the cleanliness of: (a) the calf’s environment, (b) the feeding utensils (tube, bottle, nipple …) and (c) the cow before she was milked or the quality of water used to mix the colostrum replacer.
Figure 1 Body weight differences in calves that were above 5.5 mg/dL (SPT) and those that were below (FPT).
Figure 2 Relationship between total protein values and the number of health events.
Results from the Grober center show a clear pattern of improved growth in those calves with total protein greater than 5.5 mg/dL. This improved status remained long after active immunity had taken hold, to show a difference of 2.2 kg (4.8 lbs) by 10 weeks of age (Figure 1). Furthermore, calves with total protein over 5.5 mg/dL were sick less often (Figure 2). It is clear that calves with blood levels over 6.5 mg/dL show the least incidence of disease. It is critical to note that 64% of the calves lost before weaning had total protein levels below 5.5 mg/dL and 79% below 6.5 mg/dL.
Taking care in delivering quality colostrum to the calf can go a long way in protecting them from disease and death. While 5.5 mg/dL is used as a pass or fail line, the data from the Grober Young Animal Development Center demonstrated that values above 6.5 mg/dL will make a significant difference to a calf’s health. Early health and nutrition are tied into growth. If a calf is using nutrients from feed to get well, they will not be able to maximize their growth and that may impact their production in first lactation. Calves enter the world vulnerable to whatever the environment presents to them, influencing that environment to best meet their needs is setting them up for success.
Steps to a succehttp://www.grobernutrition.com/usa/ssful colostrum program:
- Cleanliness – animals, environment and feeding utensils.
- Delivery time – within 6 hours of birth for the first meal, another meal before 24 hours.
- Quality of the colostrum – work with your vet and test your calves for total protein. That will help ensure that the right program is in place for success.
- 4. Consider a colostrum replacer guaranteed to have 100g IgG within a pouch, proven to deliver successful passive transfer. Furthermore, products such as Grober ® CCT has been carefully pasteurized to eradicate precursors to disease. (and INSERT PICT OF PRODUCT available through grober nutrition….)
Feeding Jersey Calves
General Recommendations:
- Always feed colostrum, the more the calf gets before 6 hours of birth the better
o Aim for 4 litres within 6 hours and then another 2 litres before 24 hours
o Colostrum can be fed for several days and there is some evidence that colostrum after 24 hours still has some immune benefits
o Consider colostrum replacer, such as Calf’s Choice Total, as a part of a strong calf program
- Transitions are always difficult but can be dangerous in smaller calves
o When moving from colostrum to milk replacer, start milk replacer offerings slow – the calf must adjust to the new feed
o Liquid manure is common throughout the entire milk feeding period, just watch for watery manure and signs of illness such as lack of energy, dull appearance, coughing etc…
- Sanitation is critical to a good calf management program
o Wash feeding utensils daily (optimally after each feeding) with warm soapy water
o All utensils should be left to dry in an area that isn’t near animals
o Bedding should be dry and changed
o People handling calves should wash hands or use gloves – especially if having handled cows
- Jersey calves are smaller
o Smaller stomachs require frequent feedings to allow a calf to properly digest its feed
o Nutrients are energetically expensive for the calf to digest (it takes a lot of their energy to break nutrients down and absorb)
§ If too many nutrients are provided at once, the calf’s stomach will become overwhelmed and milk will either travel back to the rumen and cause bloating or it will pass right through the calf and cause nutritional scours
o Without nutrients a calf will not grow and develop, so it is best to design the feeding schedule to MAXIMIZE nutrient uptake
§ Smaller meals frequently keeps the calf well fed and allows for nutrients to be broken down and absorbed
The recommended feeding schedule below is based on 150g/L of Grober High Performance milk replacer.
This feeding schedule was developed through NRC, 2001 based on the energy requirements of a typical Jersey calf. Intakes should be adjusted to meet individual calf needs
| Age of calf | Litres of milk replacer | Feedings/day |
| Day 1 | Colostrum | |
| Day 2-7 | 1.5 – 2L | Minimum 3 |
| Week 2-4 | 2.5L | Minimum 2 |
| Week 4-6 | 3L | Minimum 2 |
| Week 7-8 | 3L | 1 feeding less than before |
More milk can be offered to Jersey calves starting week 2 then the feeding schedule above permits as long as multiple meals per day are also offered. Automatic calf feeding machines are a good option for allowing the calf many meals in one day.
Optimizing your calf feeding program
The terms accelerated and enhanced have been used over the past 15 years to describe an increased plane of nutrition in calves.
However, calves require that increased nutrition in order to optimize growth.
Moreover, production objectives such as:
- decreasing age at first breeding,
- improving health status,
- and ultimately building a more efficient and productive dairy cow is now an expected outcome of a calf nutrition program.
The basis of the calf growth model
The calf’s digestive system is immature and requires milk or milk replacer as the primary source of nutrition. The first two months of calf growth are the greatest opportunity to optimize early growth. There has been some evidence showing a positive relationship between accelerated feeding programs and first lactation milk output (2,3,5). VanAmburgh’s research team (Cornell University) were able to determine that for every 1lb of average daily gain prior to weaning, heifers produced approximately 1,000lbs more milk throughout first lactation (6). The implications are clear that proper nutrition right from the start will have long-lasting economic benefits. Energy intake is the main driver of bodyweight gain (BWG) however protein intake can influence both BWG and body composition. Protein can be utilized efficiently during the first two months, especially when protein comes from highly digestible milk products.
While early nutrition is very important, over-conditioning (particularly between 3-15 months) can have detrimental effects on mammary gland development and thus future milk production. Feeding for higher gains in the milk phase (< 3 months; ≥ 900 g/d) may prevent heifers from over-conditioning. Furthermore, gains >840g/day (between 12 and 65 days of age) have yielded a higher proportion of cows finishing 1st lactation compared to calves gaining ≤741g/day (1). The balance of nutrients provided in the milk phase is critical (Figure 1). Providing extra calories primarily through fat can lead to fat deposition. Energy from protein enables skeletal and muscular development while enhancing other cellular functions including the immune system. The milk phase offers the best opportunity for setting your heifer up for optimal growth and future production. A milk replacer balanced correctly for protein and fat is a farmer’s best tool for producing optimal heifers.
Figure 1 Calf partitioning of fat and protein in the body based on the level of crude protein in the milk replacer (4).
Grober Young Animal Development Centre Experience
The Grober Young Animal Development Centre in Woodstock, Ontario, examined the outcome of feeding 6 litres/day vs 9 L/d of a higher protein milk replacer (Grober Excel 26% protein, 18% fat). Milk replacer was mixed at a rate of 150g/L. Calves fed 9 litres/day had significantly greater gains from week 2 to week 6 (Figure 2, p>0.05).
These higher body weights were attained even though calves drinking 6 L/day consumed more calf starter (Table 1). During the weaning phase (week 6-8) grain intakes in the higher milk group (9L/d) increased rapidly; calves fed 6 L/d continued to consume more grain. However, this increased grain intake did not result in greater body weight gains. Calves in the 9L/d group continued to outperform post weaning (Figure 2).
Figure 2 Body weight comparison between calves fed higher protein milk replacer at* 6L/day and 9L/day.
Table 1 Calf starter intake (kg/day) of calves fed 6L/day of high protein milk replacer compared to calves fed 9L/day of high protein milk replacer. (a,b columns with different superscripts are significantly different at p<0.05; weeks 1-3 all calves consumed <150g/day.)
| Week 4 | Week 5 | Week 6 | Week 7 | Week 8 | Week 9 | Week 10 | |
| 9L/day n=38 | 0.111a | 0.180a | 0.118a | 0.527a | 0.910a | 1.60a | 2.20a |
| 6L/day n=40 | 0.174b | 0.255a | 0.360b | 0.769b | 1.30b | 1.80b | 2.40b |
What it means to the producer
In raising heifers, the largest cost inputs are feed and days of growth needed to achieve productive status. Optimum heifer growth is a function of the time to reach first calving with the correct bodyweight, height, age and development to express full lactation potential. Maximizing the potential production and minimizing days to first calving can help in overall farm economics.
When applying a tool developed by the University of Wisconsin, considerable cost benefit can be shown when feeding an optimal program and calving at 22.8 months.
Table 2 The cost benefits per calf of an optimal feeding program, using typical figures.
| Feeding program | Conventional | Optimal |
| Birth weight (kg) | 43 | 43 |
| Weaning age (days) | 56 | 56 |
| Weaning weight (kg) | 68 | 96 |
| MR intake (kg/d) | 0.54 | 1.0 |
| Calf starter intake (kg/d) | 0.6 | 0.36 |
| Calving age (days) | 730 (24mth) | 697( 22.8mth) |
| *Cost benefit at weaning $/calf | 58.11 |
Using University of Wisconsin – management tool http://www.uwex.edu/ces/dairymgt/tools/index.html
*Milk replacer costs for the conventional and optimal programs are based on Grober Excel and calf starter 22%, May 2010.
Summary – Benefits and Opportunities of Optimal Feeding Programs
Cost benefit at weaning
- Improved growth rate - calves on optimal milk replacer programs have higher weight gain. This improved growth continues beyond weaning.
- Improved health – strong, well nourished calves have an enhanced immune system and improved response to disease challenge.
Cost benefit at calving
- Reduced heifer replacement costs – decreased time to breeding and first calving
- Improved milk production ability – High early gains (pre-3 months) allows for energy at a time when growth and development of the mammary glands are not adversely affected.
References
- Bach, A. 2010. Associations between several aspects of heifer development and dairy cow longevity. (abst ADSA Denver)
- Ballard, C. H. Wolford, T. Sato, K. Uchida, M. Suekawa, Y. Yabuuchi, and K. Kobayashi. 2005. The effect of feeding three milk replacer regimens preweaning on first lactation performance of Holstein cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 88:22(abst).
- Bar-Peled, U., B. Robinson, E. Maltz, H. Tagari, Y. Folman, I. Bruckental, H. Voet, H. Gacitua, and A.R. Lehrer. 1997. Increased weight gain and effects on production parameters of Holstein heifers that were allowed to suckle. J. Dairy Sci. 80:2523-2528.
- Bartlett, K. S. 2001. Interactions of protein and energy supply from milk replacers on growth and body composition of dairy calves. M.S. Thesis, University of Illinois, Urbana.
- Foldager, J. and C.C. Krohn. 1994. Heifer calves reared on very high or normal levels of whole milk from birth to 6-8 weeks of age and their subsequent milk production. Proc. Soc. Nutr. Physiol.,3.
- Van Amburgh, M. 2007. Early Life Management and Long-Term productivity of Dairy Calves. A review.
Colostrum: The Most Important Meal
high quality PDF of this information
Newborn animals are vulnerable to infection and disease. Immunoglobulins (Ig’s) are the first defence against disease and necessary for stimulation of the immune system.
Young ruminants (calves, lambs, kids) are born with negligible circulating concentrations of immunoglobulins (antibodies). Ig’s do not pass across the placenta prior to birth. Since there is no maternal sharing, ensuring that calves receive these Ig’s at birth is the only way to protect a newborn from environmental and disease challenges. Colostrum must be fed as soon as possible (within the first hour, preferably within 30 minutes of birth). Ig’s are absorbed intact into the newborn’s blood stream within a 6 hour window.
Young animal diseases often affect the gastrointestinal tract where they cause damage and symptoms of disease – diarrhea and dehydration. The intestines of young animals are not fully developed for several months. Ig cells help protect the gastrointestinal tract from pathogens. Colostrum also has a laxative effect and stimulates the normal function of the digestive tract.
Most importantly perhaps, Ig’s from colostrum stimulate the immune system. By building this “memory bank”, young animals now have the tools to mount a defense against disease.
| “Young ruminants (calves, lambs, kids) are born with negligible circulating concentrations of immunoglobulins (antibodies).“ |
Observations from the Grober Young Animal Development Centre (GYADC)
Further to disease prevention, early ingestion of good quality colostrum supports better gains in calves. During 2009 at the Grober Young Animal Development Centre, all calves entering the facility were tested for total proteins using blood serum. Calves were classified as failure of passive transfer (FPT) for total protein values <5.5mg/dL and successful passive transfer (SPT) for value above 5.6 mg/dL. All calves had received dam’s colostrum on their home farm according to a standard protocol.
During two separate trials at the Centre, calf growth was plotted and graphed according to total protein results (FPT or SPT).
In trial one, growth was plotted over a 10 week period. By the 5th week, SPT calves out-weighed FPT calves by 1.6kg (3.5lb) and by week 10 by 2.2kg (4.8lb). All calves were fed the same volume of Grober Excel milk replacer (6L/day).
In a second feeding trial, calves were fed an accelerated amount of Grober Excel (9L/day). By 10 weeks SPT calves outweighed FPT calves by 5.4kg (11.9lb) (see Figure 1). Even by 10 weeks of age, the gap in body weights between the two groups did not narrow. For every gram of milk replacer fed, the calves with SPT utilized these nutrients with greater efficiency. This data supports the vital concept that the first meal (colostrum) provides rich nutrients and antibodies with long term benefits.
Figure 1 Body weight comparison between calves with successful passive transfer and failure passive transfer.
What is Colostrum?
Colostrum is the thick, creamy, yellow secretion provided from the mammary gland for the first 24 hours after birth.
Colostrum provides a source of immunoglobulins (Ig’s) and other nutrients (protein, energy, vitamins and minerals, gut growth factors) vital for the newborn.
Immunoglobulins (antibodies) help to prevent infections by identifying and destroying pathogens. There are three main Ig’s identified in cow’s milk: IgG, IgA and IgM. The antibodies that the dam passes on depends on the diseases she has been exposed to throughout her life. First lactation animals, for this reason, will often secrete a more limited range of antibodies.
Newborns are born with very low energy stores and generally poor insulative protection, especially during the first few hours after birth. Energy from colostrum (through fat and lactose) supplies calories to help with thermoregulation. Heat production is important for survival and in particular, for animals born into cold environments in helping to prevent hypothermia. Proteins in colostrum are utilized for protein synthesis in addition to the absorption of Ig’s.
Vitamins A, D and E do not cross the placenta in significant amounts, so the newborn must rely on oral ingestion for these vitamins. Levels in colostrum are significantly higher than milk, but will depend on maternal nutrition prior to birth. These vitamins are important to the animal for the resistance of disease.
Growth factors are thought to promote gut growth and development, especially during the first 24-48 hours after birth.
Collection, Feeding, Handling & Storage
Please visit the University of Wisconsin, School of Veterinary Medicine web site for colostrum handling protocol.
http://www.vetmed.wisc.edu/dms/fapm/fapmtools/8calf/colosprot.pdf
http://www.vetmed.wisc.edu/dms/fapm/fapmtools/calves.htm
Calf’s Choice Total
A quality commercial colostrum replacer product is a safe and effective alternative to dam’s colostrum. Colostrum replacers provide consistent, disease free, and guaranteed levels of Ig’s. Along with the protective immunity, certain colostrum replacers offer rich nutrition needed by young animals. Colostrum replacers are of particular importance when high quality colostrum is not available or during a Johne’s eradication program.
Commercial products must provide sufficient biologically active IgG’s. Calf’s Choice Total is a supplement product that guarantees 100g of IgG per package (470g). Typically this is enough to have successful passive transfer. This product is Canadian sourced colostrum and tested with selection for antibodies toward specific diseases such as E. coli, Bovine Rotavirus and Bovine Coronavirus. All products are tested to ensure that it is free of Johne’s bacterium, free of Salmonella and free of E. coli.
Calf’s Choice Total was compared to other colostrum replacer products on the market (see Figure 2). Through both feeding approaches (1 bag or 2), calves fed Calf’s Choice Total not only met minimum SPT levels but surpassed those levels; the competitor product in both cases did not achieve minimum threshold.
*Attention to detail is required in storage and mixing instructions (i.e. use clean vessels for mixing and feeding, clean water to rehydrate colostrum supplements or replacers, etc.). Store product in a cool dry place and once mixed, use immediately.
Kathleen Shore, MSc.
Nutritionist
Grober Nutrition
(800) 265-7863 ex.201
kshore@grober.com
Colostrum Replacers
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Automatic Calf Feeders and Group Housing
Principles and Experience
Introduction
Producers have traditionally raised calves in individual pens or hutches. This rearing system has had advantages of individual feeding, observation and reduced risk of cross-contamination. It is however, still labour intensive. Dairy cattle are naturally group-living animals. Group-housed calves can enjoy an early social interaction and learn to understand group behaviour. Research is now proving that well-managed group housed calf rearing systems can provide advantages for both calves and producers.
Automatic feeding systems for group housing
Group housing often requires intensive management. In non-automated group housing individual intake is difficult to monitor. Moreover, sub-clinical or ill calves may be challenging to identify and therefore treat appropriately.
The new generation of automatic feeding systems (like the Förster-Technik model sold through DeLaval, Lely and Westfalia/GEA) can be easily programmed to effectively feed and monitor calves on an individual basis. There is software available to accumulate a significant amount of information and provide detailed data analysis of individual calves and/or the group for high management control with low labour requirements. An example of data collected includes daily milk replacer intake and number of visits to the feeder. Alarms will be triggered when deviations occur. Individual medication, electrolyte/additive administration programs are also available options.
Feeding management
In conventional feeding by pail, calves are fed limited amounts of milk replacer (i.e.) 2-3 litres of milk replacer twice a day, the equivalent of 500-900g of solids. For optimal heifer growth and development calf feeding recommendations have increased to 8-10 liters/day, the equivalent of 1200-1500g of solids, sometimes even more.
The advantages of feeding calves more milk are widely published. Areas studied include calf growth, height, starter consumption, medication use/costs, time management, and the increased output of milk during the first lactation (references available upon request). These published advantages examine the economic impacts of feeding more milk replacer.
Grober Nutrition, based in Cambridge, Ontario is working in partnership with Förster-Technik, a world leader in automatic calf feeding, to establish further on-farm practice and benefits. The concept of smaller meals being offered more frequently could lead to improved digestion and may also aid in the prevention of severe scouring.
Group feeding experience
Grober Nutrition has been evaluating group housing systems for over 20 years and have more recently collated data from CY Heifer Farms (Elba, N.Y.) and the Grober Young Animal Development Centre (GYADC) (Woodstock, Ont.). The trials were set up to examine and quantify the growth, development, medication usage rate and economics of 
feeding the same amount of milk to group fed calves compared with individually fed calves. The first data set from CY Farms was evaluated based on 582 calves and concluded no significant difference in live weight and growth rate between the two feeding practices. Group fed calves, however, showed a significantly lower medication cost(P<0.05) during the CY Farms trial period compared to individually fed calves. Computer data analysis allowed for earlier detection of illness and labour was reduced by 52%.
The Grober Young Animal Development Centre in Woodstock, Ontario, enables Grober to compare both individual and group housing methods under one roof. This means that nutrition programs, calf-rearing technologies and other calf products can be examined simultaneously under both management systems.
Recent data from the Grober Centre shows that calves in groups exceeded average daily gains compared to individually housed calves starting week 5 and continuing past weaning (see Table 1).
Table 1. Average Daily Gain (ADG) of calves receiving 6L/day of milk replacer as compared between groups and individual pens. (All values reported in kg/day).
| Week 2 | Week 3 | Week 4 | Week 5 | Week 6 | Week 7 | Week 8 | Week 9 | Week 10 | |
| Group | 0.361 | 0.423 | 0.501 | 0.707 | 0.448 | 0.644 | 1.03 | 0.988 | 1.23 |
| Individual | 0.378 | 0.673 | 0.668 | 0.552 | 0.503 | 0.742 | 0.835 | 0.502 | 0.597 |
blue, red columns with different superscripts are significantly different at p<0.05
While ADG often fluctuates due to environmental and health influences there was no significant difference in average body weight until weaning (week 7). Throughout weaning and post-weaning, calves in group housing achieved a significantly higher average body weight (see Figure 1.
Improved gains may be attributed to the significant increase (P< 0.05) in starter intake from automatic grain feeders prior to weaning for the group fed calves. However, during weaning, calves in individual pens achieved similar calf starter intake compared to group housed calves.
Group Housing & Health
There are perceived health concerns when calves have nose-to-tail contact. Automatic calf feeding machines are a tool for early detection of illness.
Grober Nutrition assessed the cost of medication to evaluate whether group housed calves are more likely to require therapeutic intervention (see Figure 2).
The data illustrates that individual calves suffered significantly more illness early on (i.e. scours).
During week 4, a significant difference in cost was associated with group calves (respiratory illness). Overall, group fed calves showed a significantly lower medication cost compared to individually fed calves. Age, body weight and a higher plane of nutrition may have accounted for more moderate medication use and cost.
Group Housing Considerations
Selecting calves for group housing with automation requires a thrifty calf with a strong suckling reflex. The calf manager should group calves of similar age and body weight. Group housing of calves has many time and labour saving advantages. It provides improved access to space, allowing for more vigorous activity, and with automation, improves feed consistency and number of feeds.
Group housing can facilitate earlier socialization. Moreover, there may be minimization of stress associated with changes in feed and environment post-weaning for calves.
For more details please contact Grober Nutrition at www.grobernutrition.com or toll free 1-800-265-7863
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Grober Contacts
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Heather Copland, MSc.
Anton Reijmers
Jan ZiemerinkWater – an Essential Nutrient
Water accounts for 70-75% of young animal’s body weight and yet, is often overlooked as a necessary nutrient. Water is the nutrient required in greatest quantity by young animals.
What does the body need water for?
Basic metabolic functions need daily water intake to replace that which is continuously used or eliminated. I.e.: transporting nutrients (blood volume), excretion of waste products (urine and faeces), digestion of feed, maintenance of osmotic pressure, lubrication of joints and eyes, exchange of CO2 with oxygen in the lungs, regulation of body temperature – especially heat release by the lungs and urine.
Bacteria in the rumen can only survive in a water environment. Most of the water that enters the rumen is from free water intake. Milk or milk replacer do not constitute free water. They bypass the rumen due to the esophageal groove that can be active until 12 weeks of age. The intake of water stimulates dry feed intake (Kertz et al 1984) and promotes greater total feed intake (Thickett et al, 1981), which leads to improved performance and health.
| Effect of free choice water on calf performance | Water Free Choice |
Water None |
| Daily gain (grams) | 309 | 180 |
| Calf starter intake (kg) | 11.8 | 8.18 |
| Scour days per calf | 4.5 | 5.4 |
Kertz, A.F. 1984 J.D.S. 67: 2964-2969
During periods of water loss, (e.g. scours or hot, humid weather) or water restriction (ice, dirty water, inadequate supply) reductions in body fluid negatively impacts metabolism and feed intake. Even mild dehydration (1-5% loss of body weight from water loss), with symptoms not visible to the human eye, reduces metabolic efficiency and impairs ability to regulate body heat (ear and leg extremities feel cool to the touch). As dehydration becomes more severe (9-11% of body weight), calves become depressed. When dehydration reaches 12-15% of body weight, calves may die. Calves need water!
How much water does a calf need?
An animal obtains its water from drinking water, water present in its food and metabolic water.
NRC (2001) Water intake during 1st week of life about 1kg/day increasing to over 2.5kg/d during 4th week of life.
Typical water intake for Holstein calves
at 10-26 oC ref Penn State
| Age (months) | Litres per day |
| 1 | 5-7.5 |
| 2 | 5.5-9 |
| 3 | 8-10 |
| 4 | 11.5-13.5 |
What effects water intake?
- Ambient temperature – the hotter the weather, the more water the calf requires. Water requirements increase exponentially as the temperature rises; as temperatures approach 32ºC, water requirement increases dramatically. Calves cannot sweat but still need to stay cool. Water is required to eliminate heat of metabolism and digestion. If sufficient water is not available for cooling, feed intake is depressed.
- Scours - A calf that is about to get scours or some other health issue will drink more water. Calves that consume water when they are healthy tend to have fewer days scouring and when they do scour the outbreak is less severe.
- Water Temperature – Studies have shown that feedlot beef cattle consume less cool water (10ºC), but gain more weight than when warm water (32ºC) is provided. Cattle perform best when cool water (10ºC) is fed because it helps the animal get rid of excess heat.
In cold conditions, warm water will reduce ‘cold load’ on the calf and increase time to freezing. - Starter intake – water intake is very closely correlated with starter intake. (see column 1)
- Amount liquid milk replacer – as milk intake increases, water intake decreases.
- Incorrect feeding: Calves may consume more water because they are still hungry (i.e.) not getting enough energy from the milk. E.g. If you feed 4L of 20/20 replacer during cold winter temperatures, it is NOT enough calories for the calf to maintain and grow. (see winter feeding article).
Water Quality
Producers should be aware of their water quality and ensure that water sources used for the calf are fresh, clean and free of contaminants.
At least, yearly water analysis is suggested for all water systems and particular attention after snow has melted, heavy rainfall and excessive run-off situations. Particular attention should be paid to well water sources.
Water can become contaminated with chemicals, microbial organisms, high levels of minerals etc that could be detrimental to young animals, affecting their health and/or growth. (see table below).
Warm milk replacer can provide an ideal medium for rapid bacterial growth. Low bacterial contamination of the water source could provide sufficient bacterial load to cause disease in young animals. E.g. in a US study, 73% of surface waters had cryptosporidial oocysts.
How to meet calf needs
Provide adequate fresh clean cool (10oC) water daily. Ensure adequate water supply under ice conditions.
Clean all buckets and containers daily.
Check automatic systems regularly to ensure clean and adequate flow. Contaminated nozzles and pipelines may encourage bacteria and fungi to grow.
Adequate clean, fresh water = improved rate of gain, feed conversion, health and profit.
| Chemical Name | Guideline | Units | Application |
| Alkalinity (as CaCO3) | 500 | mg/L | Alkalinity levels above 500 mg/L can have a laxative effect. Lower levels may have a laxative effect if sulphate is present in the water. |
| Aluminium (Al) | 0.5 | mg/L | Upper limit guideline for cattle. |
| Bacteria | Calves: total bacteria <10,000, total coliform, 0, faecal coliform, 0, faecal strep., 0). |
Counts per 100 mL |
No definite guidelines for presence of microbes in livestock drinking water sources. If pollution is from human wastes, faecal coliforms should exceed faecal strep by several times. If pollution is from an animal source, strep should exceed coliform in refrigerated samples run soon after taking. |
| Calcium (Ca) | 700 | mg/L | Guideline value when magnesium is present |
| Calcium (Ca) | 1000 | mg/L | Guideline value when magnesium is absent |
| Chloride (Cl) | 1000 | mg/L | >250ppm can cause brackish taste that may result in low water intake. Reduced growth in immature chickens, but effect largely overcome by adding Na and K. Humans <250mg/L Veal target <5ppm. |
| Chromium (Cr) | 1.0 | mg/L | Guideline max for cattle 0.1ppm(NRC), 0.05ppm (U.S.EPA) |
| Cobalt (Co) | 1.0 | mg/L | Guideline value. Cobalt is an essential trace element; toxicity symptoms will likely not become apparent until levels an order of magnitude higher than the recommended level is reached. |
| Copper (Cu) | 1.0 | mg/L | Guideline value for cattle. Copper is essential to animal health and is often a feed additive. Revise levels downwards if supplements are given or feed is high in copper. (0.5mg/l recommended) |
| 0.5 | mg/L | Guideline value for sheep | |
| 0.6 | mg/L | Guideline value for pigs and poultry. High levels produce a bitter flavour. | |
| Fluoride (F) | 2 | mg/L | Guideline value, but mottling of teeth may occur at this level. If fluoride is included in feed, concentration should not exceed 1 mg/L. |
| Hardness (as CaCO3) | 0-60 soft 61-120 mod.hard 121-180 hard >180 v.hard |
mg/L | Hardness has no effect on water safety, but can result in the accumulation of scale in water delivery pipes. The scale mainly consists of magnesium, manganese, iron and calcium carbonates. Water with less than 120 mg/L as CaCO3 is ideal. |
| Iodide (I) | 50 | mg /day | Reduced reproduction in sheep, 2,500 mg/L no effect on pigs, 625-5,000 mg/L caused reduced egg production, egg size, and hatchability in laying hens. |
| Iron (Fe) | 0.3 | mg/L | No toxicity guideline established. Veal calves will have increased colouration of meat at iron levels as low as 0.1 mg/; this level can also give milk an oxidized flavour. Iron can present problems in restricted flow drinking water lines where iron precipitation may plug the line. It can also present problems when water is disinfected and can encourage bacterial slime growth in water supply lines. |
| Lead (Pb) | 0.1 | mg/L | Guideline value. Lead is cumulative and problems may begin at 0.05mg/l. Chronic lead poisoning may occur at levels of 0.5 to 1.0 mg/L. NRC -cattle guide maximum -0.015mg/l |
| Magnesium (Mg) | 150 | mg/L | Reduced growth and bone mineralization in immature chickens. An upper limit of 125 has been suggested for dairy cows and 30 for veal calves. Magnesium forms part of the hardness in water. |
| Manganese (Mn) | 0.05 | mg/L | No toxicity guideline established. Manganese together with iron will discolour fixtures. Manganese and iron can present problems in restricted flow devices in drinking water lines where manganese precipitation may plug the line. Manganese will also present problems when the water is to be disinfected. Can also have an adverse effect on taste. Target 0.02mg/l for veal calves. |
| Molybdenum (Mo) | 0.25 | mg/L | Guideline value. An essential element, but it is toxic (linked to intake of copper sulphate. Cu:Mo ratio of 2:1 will prevent poisoning. Sheep, swine and poultry are more tolerant than cattle to poisoning. |
| Molybdenum (total) | 0.05 | mg/L | Maximum Criterion. British Columbia maintains a 10 times lower value for molybdenum. |
| Nitrate (NO3) | 0-100 | mg/L | Guideline value. Nitrate may impair the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood by nitrite reducing haemoglobin to methemoglobin. Ruminants are more sensitive than monogastrics because of the ability of the rumen microbes to reduce nitrate to the more toxic nitrite. Often indicates bacterial contamination or contamination from runoff water from land that has received heavy application of fertilizer. Reduced gains, milk production, reproductive problems. Take care that comparing analyses are same. (i.e)10mg/l nitrate equivalent to 2.3mg/l nitrate-N. Human max. Nitrate-N is 10mg/l |
| Nitrite (NO2) | 10 | mg/L | Guideline value More toxic than nitrate. Nitrite may impair the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood by reducing haemoglobin to methemoglobin. Animal suffocates. >4mg/l maybe toxic to cattle. Nitrite-N human max 1mg/l (3.3mg/l Nitrite). |
| 0-0.1 | mg/l | Veal target | |
| pH | 6.5-8.5 | pH units | Guideline values. If pH is lower than 5.5, acidosis and reduced feed intake may occur in cattle, but is unlikely to have an effect on pigs. Chlorination efficiency is reduced at high pH. A low pH may cause precipitation of some antibacterial agents delivered through the water system (for example sulphonamides). Veal calves target: 6.8-7.3. |
| Phosphate (total P) | 1 | mg/l | Guideline value. In surface waters, phosphate is typically a limiting plant nutrient. Human max. recommended is 0.1mg/l. |
| Potassium (K) | 10 | mg/l | As chloride contributes to TDS test. Can affect taste and corrosivity. |
| Selenium (Se) | 0.05 | mg/L | Guideline value. An essential element, but at high levels can be toxic. |
| Sodium (Na) | 200 | mg/l | Contributes to salinity and TDS. Can affect taste and corrosivity. Target veal 20mg/l. |
| Sulphate (SO4) | 1,000 | mg/L | At >500mg/L the form of S is important. Sulphate interacts with copper metabolism in most animals. High sulphate water consumption often requires changes to the mineral mix that one needs to give to the animals. This has two components, increasing the copper, and decreasing some other minerals.>750mg/L has caused diarrhea in pigs. |
| 500 | mg/L | Calves and humans. Target for veal calves 3mg/L. | |
| 30-50 | mg/L | poultry | |
| Sulphide (H2S) | <1.0 | mg/L | This is not a toxicity guideline, but a taste and smell advisory. High levels may increase problems with anemia and those related to Cu, Se and Vit E nutrition. Levels above 25 mg/L are required to cause decreased growth in chickens. |
| Zinc (Zn) | 5-25 | mg/L | Guideline value. This is an essential element for livestock, but at high levels it can exert toxicity. The lowest recorded effect was at 20 mg/L where the rumen microbes in cattle were affected (decreased digestion of cellulose) |
Information from CCREM 1987, Australian Water Quality Criteria 1974, NAS 1974, CAST 1974, BCMOELP 1994, NRC 1974, NRC 1998, NRC 2001, Manitoba Agriculture 1992, EPA 1996, CPAQ 1999, Agriculture and Agri-food Canada (2000).
Water quality standard listings of concentrations (as above) would be useful expressed as ‘total maximum daily load’. These present a dose risk more accurately and would enable interpreters to consider a specific element acquired from all sources, e.g. feed and water.
For example: When forages, especially grasses, are stressed by drought, they can accumulate nitrates. A high level of nitrogen fertilization also is a factor in many cases of nitrate poisoning.
Serve the milk solution at a temperature of 40°C and feed according to feed schedule below:
| Calf Age | Litres of solution (per feeding) |
# feedings (per day) |
| Day 1–Colostrum | 4 litres within 2 hrs of birth | 2 |
| Day 2 | 2.0 | 2 |
| Week 2 | 2.0 | 2 |
| Week 3 | 2.5 | 2 |
| Week 4 – 6 | 3.0 | 2 |
| Week 7 | 3.0 | 1 |
| Week 8 | 2.0 | 1 |
Veal calf feeding and pre-feed checking
This information is inteneded for those raising veal calves, housed individually.
- Calves should be fed twice everyday.
- Missed feeding means missed growth.
- Calves should be fed as close to 9-12 hours apart as possible for optimum appetite and digestion. These times should remain as constant as possible as calves are creatures of habit. Irregular feeding times will result in more refusals, especially with older calves.
- Two hours after feeding give water to all calves that didn’t drink half or more of their milk. They need the fluid to retain full hydration, in particular if they have a temperature.
- It is a good practice to give weak calves electrolytes two hours after morning feeding for the first 10-14 days. It will help them maintain hydration and good general health, and prevent scouring.
- All calves should have access to water 24 hours a day.
- Check the barn in the evening, after feeding, for bloat, missed sick calves and for air control problems.
The feeding schedule should be adjusted daily to maintain the feed levels outlined on the label. Changes should be initiated when:
- The calves are drinking well and are eager?
- The manure behind the calves indicates needed change.
- Manure should be checked twice daily for young calves before changing feed schedules and daily for older calves.
- Calves should be kept on the Grober feeding schedule throughout the feeding program.