Grober Nutrition

Archive for the ‘Management’ Category

Principles and Experience

Introduction

Producers have traditionally raised calves in individual pens or hutches. This rearing system has had advantages of individual feeding, observation and reduced risk of cross-contamination. It is however, still labour intensive. Dairy cattle are naturally group-living animals. Group-housed calves can enjoy an early social interaction and learn to understand group behaviour. Research is now proving that well-managed group housed calf rearing systems can provide advantages for both calves and producers.

Automatic feeding systems for group housing

Group housing often requires intensive management. In non-automated group housing individual intake is difficult to monitor. Moreover, sub-clinical or ill calves may be challenging to identify and therefore treat appropriately.

The new generation of automatic feeding systems (like the Förster-Technik model sold through DeLaval, Lely and Westfalia/GEA) can be easily programmed to effectively feed and monitor calves on an individual basis. There is software available to accumulate a significant amount of information and provide detailed data analysis of individual calves and/or the group for high management control with low labour requirements. An example of data collected includes daily milk replacer intake and number of visits to the feeder. Alarms will be triggered when deviations occur. Individual medication, electrolyte/additive administration programs are also available options.

Feeding management

In conventional feeding by pail, calves are fed limited amounts of milk replacer (i.e.) 2-3 litres of milk replacer twice a day, the equivalent of 500-900g of solids. For optimal heifer growth and development calf feeding recommendations have increased to 8-10 liters/day, the equivalent of 1200-1500g of solids, sometimes even more.

The advantages of feeding calves more milk are widely published. Areas studied include calf growth, height, starter consumption, medication use/costs, time management, and the increased output of milk during the first lactation (references available upon request). These published advantages examine the economic impacts of feeding more milk replacer.

Grober Nutrition, based in Cambridge, Ontario is working in partnership with Förster-Technik, a world leader in automatic calf feeding, to establish further on-farm practice and benefits. The concept of smaller meals being offered more frequently could lead to improved digestion and may also aid in the prevention of severe scouring.

Group feeding experience

Grober Nutrition has been evaluating group housing systems for over 20 years and have more recently collated data from CY Heifer Farms (Elba, N.Y.) and the Grober Young Animal Development Centre (GYADC) (Woodstock, Ont.). The trials were set up to examine and quantify the growth, development, medication usage rate and economics of feeding the same amount of milk to group fed calves compared with individually fed calves. The first data set from CY Farms was evaluated based on 582 calves and concluded no significant difference in live weight and growth rate between the two feeding practices. Group fed calves, however, showed a significantly lower medication cost(P<0.05) during the CY Farms trial period compared to individually fed calves. Computer data analysis allowed for earlier detection of illness and labour was reduced by 52%.

The Grober Young Animal Development Centre in Woodstock, Ontario, enables Grober to compare both individual and group housing methods under one roof. This means that nutrition programs, calf-rearing technologies and other calf products can be examined simultaneously under both management systems.

Recent data from the Grober Centre shows that calves in groups exceeded average daily gains compared to individually housed calves starting week 5 and continuing past weaning (see Table 1).

Table 1. Average Daily Gain (ADG) of calves receiving 6L/day of milk replacer as compared between groups and individual pens. (All values reported in kg/day).

blue, red columns with different superscripts are significantly different at p<0.05

While ADG often fluctuates due to environmental and health influences there was no significant difference in average body weight until weaning (week 7). Throughout weaning and post-weaning, calves in group housing achieved a significantly higher average body weight (see Figure 1.

Improved gains may be attributed to the significant increase (P< 0.05) in starter intake from automatic grain feeders prior to weaning for the group fed calves. However, during weaning, calves in individual pens achieved similar calf starter intake compared to group housed calves.

Group Housing & Health

There are perceived health concerns when calves have nose-to-tail contact. Automatic calf feeding machines are a tool for early detection of illness.

Grober Nutrition assessed the cost of medication to evaluate whether group housed calves are more likely to require therapeutic intervention (see Figure 2).

The data illustrates that individual calves suffered significantly more illness early on (i.e. scours).

During week 4, a significant difference in cost was associated with group calves (respiratory illness). Overall, group fed calves showed a significantly lower medication cost compared to individually fed calves. Age, body weight and a higher plane of nutrition may have accounted for more moderate medication use and cost.

Group Housing Considerations

Selecting calves for group housing with automation requires a thrifty calf with a strong suckling reflex. The calf manager should group calves of similar age and body weight. Group housing of calves has many time and labour saving advantages. It provides improved access to space, allowing for more vigorous activity, and with automation, improves feed consistency and number of feeds.

Group housing can facilitate earlier socialization. Moreover, there may be minimization of stress associated with changes in feed and environment post-weaning for calves.

For more details please contact Grober Nutrition at www.grobernutrition.com  or toll free 1-800-265-7863

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This information is inteneded for those raising veal calves, housed individually.

• Calves should be fed twice everyday.
• Missed feeding means missed growth.
• Calves should be fed as close to 9-12 hours apart as possible for optimum appetite and digestion. These times should remain as constant as possible as calves are creatures of habit. Irregular feeding times will result in more refusals, especially with older calves.
• Two hours after feeding give water to all calves that didn’t drink half or more of their milk. They need the fluid to retain full hydration, in particular if they have a temperature.
• It is a good practice to give weak calves electrolytes two hours after morning feeding for the first 10-14 days. It will help them maintain hydration and good general health, and prevent scouring.
• All calves should have access to water 24 hours a day.
• Check the barn in the evening, after feeding, for bloat, missed sick calves and for air control problems.

The feeding schedule should be adjusted daily to maintain the feed levels outlined on the label. Changes should be initiated when:

• The calves are drinking well and are eager?
• The manure behind the calves indicates needed change.
• Manure should be checked twice daily for young calves before changing feed schedules and daily for older calves.
• Calves should be kept on the Grober feeding schedule throughout the feeding program.

In the last few years, larger calf raising units and more attention being paid to rearing costs and profits, has made it interesting to look into the possibility of on farm pasteurization for waste milk.

Important criteria to consider in choosing a milk feeding program:

• Number of calves being fed
• Nutritional requirements
• Performance targets
• Consistency of availability
• Storage & preservation requirements
• Infectious disease control Economics

The number of calves fed:
It is important to have a stable supply of milk so that young calves’ diet is consistent. Often, the quantity of waste milk available is sufficient for units operations.

Nutritional requirements of the young calf and performance targets

Whole milk and milk replacers can be compared on an energy and protein basis to provide some indication of growth performance. Whole milk can have a variable nutrient profile and is low in vitamins and some minerals. Pasteurized milk is subjected to high temperatures, therefore care and attention must be taken to avoid denaturing of proteins and vitamin loss etc.

Milk sources

Transition milk: availability, variability, storage and preservation can be a problem, particularly for large numbers of calves. Warm or hot weather can result in putrefactive fermentation.

Non saleable or discard milk: Milk from cows after antibiotic treatment for mastitis or other infectious diseases which cannot be sold. There are concerns of development of antibiotic resistance for intestinal bacteria in calves and antibiotic residues may also result in unsaleable calves after the withdrawal period.

Milk replacer: Quality products are consistent and formulated to high standards to ensure that the young calf is provided with the best possible nutrition and start in life.

Infectious disease control

It is easier and more cost effective to try and prevent disease situations than to cure them once they have become established. Decreasing exposure to disease is a primary method of decreasing disease.
Calves are the most vulnerable animals on the farm to infection and disease. Some of these disease conditions can be transmitted to calves through feeding practices.

There is a large ‘risk’ factor associated with feeding waste milk for transmission of infectious diseases to calves, (Godden 2004). Pathogens that may be transmitted in colostrum and milk include: Mycobacterium avium subsp. Paratuberculosis (Mptb) (the agent causing Johne’s disease); Salmonella spp.; Mycoplasma spp.; Listeria monocytogenes; Campylobacter spp.; Mycobacterium bovis; E.coli. (most common identified pathogen). The prevalence of Mptb in Ontario dairy cattle has been estimated to be 6.1% (McNab et al., 1991). At the herd level, 16.7% of herds had at least two Mptb-positive cows (VanLeeuwen et al., 2001).

On-farm commercial pasteurizers are offering a method of reducing but not eliminating this risk of disease transmission.

Economics

Installation and daily operation costs need to be considered when evaluating on farm waste milk pasteurization. For example electricity, drainage, chemicals, labour, maintenance and repairs, depreciation, interest payments etc. Some industry data suggests operation costs from $0.067 to $0.46 per calf per day to operate a pasteurizer. (University Wisconsin, 2002)

Producers would be advised to assess the equipment, space, time and handling requirements alongside economic and nutritional efficiency compared with alternatives like milk replacer. This must be combined with the risk factors of transmission of infectious diseases to calves.

Facts to consider

• It is recommended that milk is <1,000,000 CFU/ml to achieve adequate pasteurization efficacy. This requires chilling to prevent growth and fermentation of pre-pasteurized milk. (Unchilled waste milk may reach 1,000,000,000 CFU/ml in summer, (Reynolds 2002); on farm waste milk tested 14,960,000CFU/ml (S.McGuirk 2003).
• Pasteurization is a process of heating milk to a specific temperature for a specified amount of time to reduce the bacteria to negligible levels. For example Batch process: 66°C for 30mins or continuous flow (HTST): 72oC for 15 secs.
• Heating destroys or reduces the presence of viable bacteria. Some bacteria will survive the process. These are either heat-tolerant bacteria or a result of a very high concentration of bacteria in raw milk.
• The goal for post pasteurized milk is <20,000 CFU/ml. (Grade A milk for human consumption) to <10,000 CFU/ml total bacteria.
• Bacterial numbers double every 20 minutes. In ideal conditions, after one hour this could be > 500,000 CFU/ml. This is a very high load for the young calf gut to handle.
• The efficacy of pasteurization in destroying Mptb (the agent causing Johne’s disease), remains controversial between the different pasteurization systems (Batch or HTST). For E.g. UofG, 2003, result indicates that Mptb may survive HTST pasteurization. J. Dairy Science 2001; 84(2):524-527 “Results suggest that batch pasteurization of waste milk contaminated with M. paratuberculosis was effective at generating a clean product to feed to young calves.” USDA tests conducted 1997 showed that “treatment of raw milk at 72° C (162° F) for 15 seconds effectively killed all M. paratuberculosis.” (J.R. Stabel, et al). Turbulent flow is suggested to be essential for complete killing of Mptb contamination.

 Problems with pasteurization

Extreme care and attention is required when handling milk. Maintenance and sanitation of the pasteurizer are ongoing and essential for maintaining high quality end product. Agitation is suggested to ensure even heating and higher kill %. This can be very expensive to install and maintain.

Pasteurizing colostrum in standard pasteurizers can be difficult due to thickening (denatured proteins coagulate) and poor flow (clumps plug equipment). Immunogloblin (IgG) levels in pasteurized colostrum can be significantly reduced (e.g. 24-58% reduction!). A high colostrum Ig concentration is one of the critical factors to ensure that the calf receives adequate ‘passive transfer’. This helps protect the young calf from infectious diseases until its on immune system becomes fully functional. Proper management of colostrum (sanitation, cooling, storage, thawing etc) is better to ensure low bacterial load and high quality clean colostrum.

Grober provides high quality milk replacers for successful and healthy calf rearing.

Milk Replacer quality comes from several areas; the raw materials used, the method of manufacture and the soundness of the feeding nutrition program. All Grober milk replacers are manufactured with the same important high quality guidelines. Grober quality milk replacers ensure that the products are free of pathogens and contain a low bacterial load. Typical levels: <25,000CFU in milk replacer, equivalent to <5000 CFU/ml in milk solution using low bacterial load water.

Why Higher Protein?

Capitalize on the rapid early growth potential of young calves. Meet the needs of the rapidly growing bone and muscle for protein. This encourages greater lean tissue deposition without excess fattening.

Why Specific Protein : Fat Ratio?

Provide the correct protein to fat ratio at these higher feeding rates, to better promote muscle and skeletal growth so that increases in stature are attained. The high digestibility of lactose and the requirement for energy by the calf must be balanced for fat and protein.

Why Higher Feeding Rate?

Feeding rate determines energy intake, which sets limits on the growth potential.
Grober VG is fed at a higher concentration (125g/l) than conventional milk replacers to meet growth demands of a healthy feeding program.

Milk Replacer Comparison

*ref: NRC 2001 for 50kg calf.

Calf Growth: What do you want?

• Transition to functioning ruminant
• Rapid growth of frame (skeleton and muscle)
• Optimal fat deposition
• High health status.

Rate of gain should not be the sole means of assessing the efficiency of a nutrition program for milk replacer fed grain veal calves.

Potential Advantages

• Improved health and immune system when calves are gaining at higher levels. (IGF-1 important regulator of cells of the immune system, IGF’s correlated to growth rates- Drackley)
• Improved feed efficiency and returns on feed investment. Feed efficiency is an important measure of how an animal utilizes the nutrients it eats and converts them into products, e.g. muscle, fat, structural growth. Ration, management and environmental factors may affect feed efficiency.

Potential Disadvantages

• Increased investment of money during milk feeding period.
• Attention to management required for success – to avoid digestive upsets, maintain high levels of sanitation, providing adequate, clean water at all times. Starter intake of 900grams per day for 3 consecutive days must be achieved before weaning can occur.

Calf Rearing Objectives

Optimum calf growth is a function of the time necessary to achieve market weight.

In raising Holstein grain veal calves, the largest cost input are calves and feed. By feeding for the highest gains possible in the liquid feeding period, you will get the greatest value for the cost of milk replacer and starter.
The calf’s genetic potential to grow is imprinted at birth. The ability to utilize the nutrients in milk replacer and more so the ability to consume ever increasing amounts of liquid feed is in direct relation to the volume of feed the calf feeder offers the calf.

Underfeeding a calf will not only impact its growth potential but also its health and ability to overcome stress challenges.

A properly designed milk replacer and feeding program should allow you to have gains approaching 500 g/d, given proper health, sanitation and management.

Andre Roy MSc.
Sally Charlton BSc. (Hons)
April 2003

Ontario and Quebec dairy herds produce approximately 400,000 male calves annually. These calves are destined for several hundred veal producers.The goal of grain fed veal producers is to achieve the desired finish at the desired weight and age. The market-ready calf is typically 250-295kg at an age of 25-30 weeks. Finished average daily gains should be 1.13kg or better and feed conversion should be 3.5-4.0 kg per kg of live-weight gain.

The Holstein calf has an ability to grow rapidly and genetics, management, environment and nutrition dictate this growth.

NRC 2001 – major change is to provide the foundation to think of calves as we have of older animals, in that nutrient requirements are not static but depend on desired rate of gain, body size and environment. The new NRC considers the approach that calf nutrition is dynamic, just as for older cattle. In other words, the product-orientated ‘one size fits all’ mentality of calf raising, (i.e. a single milk replacer formulation or feeding regime is assumed adequate for all calves) gives way to calculating requirements for growth and health and then designing diets to meet those requirements.

Conventional calf feeding offers milk replacer, of 20% protein and 20% fat, at approximately 400-450g/d. Using the NRC 2001, this does not provide sufficient energy to meet high growth requirements of grain-fed veal calves. While energy intake is the main driver of bodyweight gain, protein intake can influence both BWG and its composition.

e.g.

The nutritional balance of energy, protein and essential vitamins and minerals for very young calves to encourage high DM intakes cannot be achieved from concentrates or forages because of the limitations in: early dry-feed intake, stomach capacity, rumen development, and lower digestibility of concentrate ingredients.

(Leadley and Sojda, 1996.) To help overcome the weaning growth depression, it is suggested that milk feeding be increased during the first 3-4 weeks of life, followed by restricted allowances during the next 1-2 weeks to encourage development of solid feed intake.
Increasing milk intake early→increase growth→ more vigorous calves→ smoother weaning transition→ less stress and growth depression.

With the Grober VG feeding program, the milk replacer is designed to meet the correct nutrient balance for high growth rates of young veal calves, resulting in healthier and well-proportioned calves that can achieve their production goals with a high efficiency.

Andre Roy MSc.
Sally Charlton BSc. (Hons)
April 2003

It is important to remember that the foundations of udder development are completed within the first 15 months of life. Mammary growth and development is a component of the reproductive process and is affected by hormonal changes that occur as the animal develops.

The basic structures of the mammary gland (teats, circulatory system, mammary fat pad and ligaments) are established at birth.

From birth to approximately 3 months, the mammary gland grows at roughly the same rate as the rest of the body (isometric growth). During this period, the adipose tissue and the circulatory system develops, which serve as a structure in which the duct network will later develop.

From 3 months until approximately 10 months of age, the mammary gland develops at a faster rate than the body (allometric), contributes a large portion of the ductwork development and increases the size of the fat pad.

From 10 months to calving, the mammary growth slows to a rate more consistent with body growth. A large amount (80%) of mammary growth occurs during gestation with most of the milk secretory tissue development occurring during the last 60 days of gestation.
The allometric growth is in response to changes in the level and frequency of hormonal secretions associated with puberty, pregnancy and parturition.
Proper rate of body weight gain from 3 to 10 months of age may be critical for optimum development of the mammary system. The diet can be influential during this period and incorrect feeding during this period has consequences for the milk production potential of the cow. The heifer’s growth rate is required such that she achieves her correct breeding weight at 15 months but is not allowed to get fat. Puberty is associated with weight and not age.

The requirement for a high-energy diet, to achieve the target growth rate of high genetic merit heifers, must be balanced with sufficient protein, and in particular, high quality by-pass protein. If the growth pattern is one of high energy alone, fat rather than milk-secreting tissue will be deposited in the udder. This results in a heifer with sub-optimal milk quality and quantity performance. High-energy diets depress somatotrophin (ST) secretion, thus reducing the extent of mammary development. ST (and oestrogen) mediates mammary duct growth.
Andre Roy MSc.
Sally Charlton BSc. (Hons)
 April 2003

The profit-making potential of the modern cow depends on her ability to combine production and type. Functional type enables a cow to produce over a long lifetime. (Holstein Canada)

Relative Emphasis for Cows

Body weight alone should not be a measure for developmental traits of heifers. Wither height is also any important measurement of skeletal development (frame and capacity). If heifers are not grown properly and do not achieve sufficient size at calving, they will not be able to take in the ‘fuel’ to power their genetic ability. Body condition is also another important management tool.

Inadequate size at first calving will reduce the potential milk production during first and second lactations due to reduced intakes, competition of nutrients for continued growth and inadequate energy reserves. This may also delay conception during the first lactation.

TYPICAL TARGETS 700kg mature weight:

Hoffman, Frank, Syverud, 1991.

To maximize milk production and profits, a nutrition and management program should be designed to provide adequate growth and properly conditioned heifers.

The key to successful growth rates is to plan a feeding strategy form birth for every stage of rearing to match a heifer’s genetic potential. Growth rates are also affected by the environment and health status.

Andre Roy MSc.
Sally Charlton BSc. (Hons)
 April 2003

We most often concentrate on milking cows to meet financial and milk supply commitments and to let the herd replacements take a back seat. Replacement heifers are tomorrow’s profit earners and deserve as much detailed attention as the milking herd. Managing the growth of replacement heifers to achieve sufficient body size and yet assure optimum mammary development is a concern among dairy research institutions, nutritionists and dairy producers.

The improved genetic heifer or modern Holstein heifer that has the potential to calve at 24 months of age has specific growth, weight and height targets throughout her growing phase. To achieve early maturation of the reproductive tract, heifers must be fed to attain rapid body weight gains during the growth period.

There are three phases of heifer development:

• Prepuberty
• Puberty/conception
• Late gestation.

It is evident that:

• The rate of growth during the rearing period influences milk yield,
• The level of nutrition around the time of service affects pregnancy rates and
• The management of the heifer at calving influences the incidence of dystocia and calf mortality.

Attention to detail and good management throughout the rearing period has a considerable effect on longevity and overall herd profitability. The onset of puberty is largely a function of bodyweight.

CALF REARING TARGETS (HOLSTEIN-0-3 MONTHS)

* (0.6) mature body wt. (Troccon 1993)
** (0.82) mature body wt. (NRC 2001)

TARGET GROWTH RATES FOR HOLSTEIN HEIFERS

*pre calving weight

“What does it cost to raise a heifer of good or bad genetic potential?”

Feed costs alone run $.95/day.
That amounts to $693.50 (365 days x *2 yrs. x $.95),
plus other costs to total an estimated $1,600.
*1996 data indicates average age for first calving in Ontario was 27 ½ months.

Andre Roy MSc.
Sally Charlton BSc. (Hons)
 April 2003